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| Preface 1 To the Student 1 To the Instructor 6 Chapter1 Introduction 1 1.1 Computers and Software 2 1.1.1 General System Software 2 1.1.2 Resource Abstraction 4 * IN THE HANGAR: A Disk Device Abstraction 5 1.1.3 Resource Sharing 6 1.1.4 Computers Without System Software 7 1.2 Operating System Strategies 8 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Multiprogramming Systems 10 1.2.1 Batch Systems 10 * IN THE HANGAR: Batch Files 13 1.2.2 Timesharing Systems 14 1.2.3 Personal Computers and Workstations 16 1.2.4 Process Control and Real-time Systems 18 1.2.5 Networks 19 1.2.6 The Genesis of Modern Operating Systems 20 * IN THE HANGAR: The Evolution of Linux 21 * IN THE HANGAR: The Microsoft Windows Family of Operating Systems 23 1.3 Summary 25 1.4 Exercises 26 Chapter2 Using The Operating System 29 2.1 The Abstract Model of Computing 30 2.2 Resources 30 2.2.1 Files 30 * IN THE HANGAR: POSIX Files 31 * IN THE HANGAR: Windows Files 33 2.2.2 Other Resources 36 2.3 Processes 37 2.3.1 Creating Processes 39 * IN THE HANGAR: Using FORK, JOIN, and QUIT 40 * IN THE HANGAR: Creating Processes in UNIX 41 * IN THE HANGAR: Creating Processes in Windows 44 2.4 Threads 46 * IN THE HANGAR: C Threads 48 2.5 Objects 49 2.6 Summary 50 2.7 Exercises 50 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: A Shell Program 53 ·Background 53 ·Attacking the Problem 58 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: A Multithreaded Windows Console Application 61 ·Background 61 ·Attacking the Problem 65 Chapter3 Operating System Organization 71 3.1 Factors in OS Design 72 3.1.1 Performance 72 3.1.2 Protection and Security 73 3.1.3 Correctness 74 3.1.4 Maintainability 74 3.1.5 Commercial Influence on Operating Systems 74 3.1.6 Standards and Open Systems 75 3.2 Basic Functions 76 3.2.1 Device Management 77 3.2.2 Process and Resource Management 77 3.2.3 Memory Management 78 3.2.4 File Management 78 3.2.5 Functional Organization 79 3.3 Basic Implementation Considerations 80 3.3.1 Processor Modes 80 3.3.2 Kernels 81 3.3.3 Requesting Services from the Operating Systems 82 3.4 Summary 83 3.5 Exercises 84 Chapter4 Computer Organization 85 4.1 The von Neumann Architecture 86 4.2 The Central Processing Unit 88 4.2.1 The Arithmetical-Logical Unit 88 4.2.2 The Control Unit 89 4.3 Memory 91 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Speeding up the Machine 92 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Parallel Processors 94 4.4 Devices 95 4.4.1 General Device Characteristics 96 4.4.2 Device Controllers 97 * IN THE HANGAR: Asynchronous Serial Devices 98 4.4.3 Device Drivers 99 4.5 Interrupts 100 4.6 The Mode Bit Revisited: The Trap Instruction 103 4.7 Summary 104 4.8 Exercises 105 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: Kernel Timers 109 ·Background 109 ·Attacking the Problem 113 Chapter5 Device Management 119 5.1 Device Management Approaches 120 5.1.1 I/O System Organization 120 5.1.2 Direct I/O with Polling 121 5.1.3 Interrupt-driven I/O 123 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Interrupts Versus Polling 126 5.1.4 Memory-mapped I/O 127 5.1.5 Direct Memory Access 128 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: I/O-Processor Overlap 129 5.2 Buffering 130 5.3 Device Drivers 134 5.3.1 The Device Driver Interface 134 5.3.2 CPU-device Interactions 137 5.3.3 I/O Optimization 138 5.4 Some Device Management Scenarios 138 5.4.1 Serial Communications 138 * IN THE HANGAR: UNIX Device Drivers 139 5.4.2 Sequentially Accessed Storage Devices 141 5.4.3 Randomly Accessed Devices 142 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Optimizing Access on Rotating Devices 144 5.5 Summary 149 5.6 Exercises 150 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: A Floppy Disk Driver 153 ·Background 154 ·Attacking the Problem 158 Chapter6 Process Management 161 6.1 The System View of Process and Resources 162 6.1.1 Implementing the Process Model 163 6.1.2 Implementing the Resource Model 164 6.2 Initializing the Operating System 165 6.3 Process Address Spaces 166 6.3.1 Creating the Address Space 167 6.3.2 Loading the Program 168 6.3.3 Maintaining Consistency in the Address Space 168 6.4 The Process Abstraction 170 6.4.1 Process Descriptors 170 6.4.2 Process State Diagram 172 6.5 The Resource Abstraction 173 6.6 Process Hierarchy 174 6.6.1 Refining the Process Manager 176 6.6.2 Specializing Resource Allocation Strategies 177 6.7 Summary 178 6.8 Exercises 179 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: Observing OS Behavior 181 ·Background 182 ·Attacking the Problem 187 Chapter7 Scheduling 189 7.1 Scheduling Mechanisms 190 7.1.1 The Process Scheduler Organization 190 7.1.2 Saving the Process Context 192 7.1.3 Voluntary CPU Sharing 192 7.1.4 Involuntary CPU Sharing 194 7.1.5 Performance 195 7.2 Strategy Selection 196 7.2.1 Partitioning a Process into Small Processes 199 7.3 Nonpreemptive Strategies 200 7.3.1 First-Come-First-Served 200 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Approximating System Load 201 7.3.2 Shortest Job Next 202 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Predicting Wait Times for FCFS 203 7.3.3 Priority Scheduling 204 7.3.4 Deadline Scheduling 206 7.4 Preemptive Strategies 207 7.4.1 Round Robin 207 7.4.2 Multiple-level Queues 210 7.5 Summary 212 7.6 Exercises 213 Chapter8 Basic Synchronization Principles 217 8.1 Interacting Processes 218 * IN THE HANGAR: Solving a System of Linear Equation 219 8.1.1 Critical Sections 220 8.1.2 Deadlock 224 8.2 Coordinating Processes 226 8.3 Semaphores 228 8.3.1 Principles of Operation 229 * IN THE HANGAR: Examples Using Semaphore 231 8.3.2 Practical Considerations 237 8.4 Shared Memory Multiprocessors 241 8.5 Summary 242 8.6 Exercises 242 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: Bounded Buffer Problem 249 ·Background 249 ·Attacking the Problem 255 Chapter9 High-level Synchronization 257 9.1 Alternative Synchronization Primitives 258 9.1.1 AND Synchronization 258 9.1.2 Events 259 * IN THE HANGAR: Using Events 260 * IN THE HANGAR: UNIX Signals 261 * IN THE HANGAR: Windows 2000 Dispatcher Objects 263 9.2 Monitors 264 9.2.1 Principles of Operation 264 9.2.2 Condition Variables 266 * IN THE HANGAR: Examples Using Monitors 269 9.2.3 Some Practical Aspects of Using Monitors 273 9.3 Interprocess Communication 273 9.3.1 Mailboxes 274 9.3.2 Message Protocols 276 9.3.3 Using the send and receive Operations 276 * IN THE HANGAR: Synchronized IPC 278 9.3.4 Deferred Message Copying 278 9.4 Explicitly Ordering Event Execution 279 9.5 Summary 281 9.6 Exercises 281 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: Refining the Shell 285 ·Background 285 ·Attacking the Problem 290 Chapter10 Deadlock 291 10.1 Background 292 10.1.1 Prevention 294 10.1.2 Avoidance 295 10.1.3 Detection and Recovery 295 10.1.4 Manual Deadlock Management 295 10.2 A System Deadlock Model 296 * IN THE HANGAR: Single Resource Type 297 10.3 Prevention 299 10.3.1 Hold and Wait 299 10.3.2 Circular Wait 301 10.3.3 Allowing Preemption 303 10.4 Avoidance 304 10.4.1 The Banker's Algorithm 306 * IN THE HANGAR: Using The Banker's Algorithm 307 10.5 Detection and Recovery 309 10.5.1 Serially Reusable Resources 310 10.5.2 Consumable Resources 316 10.5.3 General Resource Systems 320 10.5.4 Recovery 321 10.6 Summary 321 10.7 Exercises 322 Chapter11 Memory Management 325 11.1 The Basics 326 11.1.1 Requirements on Primary Memory 326 11.1.2 Mapping the Address Space to Primary Memory 327 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Using Memory Hierarchies to Reduce Access Time 328 * IN THE HANGAR: The Address Binding Procedure 330 11.1.3 Dynamic Memory for Data Structures 333 11.2 Memory Allocation 335 11.2.1 Fixed-partition Memory Strategies 336 11.2.2 Variable-partition Memory Strategies 337 11.2.3 Contemporary Allocation Strategies 340 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: The Cost of Moving Programs 341 11.3 Dynamic Address Relocation 342 11.3.1 Runtime Bound Checking 346 * IN THE HANGAR: Expanding Small Address Spaces 347 11.4 Memory Manager Strategies 348 11.4.1 Swapping 348 11.4.2 Virtual Memory 352 11.4.3 Shared-memory Multiprocessors 352 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Using Cache Memory 535 11.5 Summary 357 11.6 Exercises 357 Chapter12 Virtual Memory 361 12.1 Address Translation 362 12.1.1 Address Space Mapping 362 12.1.2 Segmentation and Paging 364 12.2 Paging 365 12.2.1 Virtual Address Translation 367 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Page Table Implementations 370 12.3 Static Paging Algorithms 371 12.3.1 The Fetch Policy 372 12.3.2 Demand Paging Algorithms 372 12.3.3 Stack Algorithms 376 12.3.4 Implementing LRU 378 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Paging Performance 379 12.4 Dynamic Paging Algorithms 381 12.4.1 The Working Set Algorithm 381 * IN THE HANGAR: Working Set Algorithm Example 383 12.4.2 Implementing the Working Set Algorithm 385 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Taking Advantage of Pages with IPC 387 * IN THE HANGAR: Windows 2000 Virtual Memory 388 * IN THE HANGAR: Linux Virtual Memory 392 12.5 Segmentation 393 12.5.1 Address Translation 394 12.5.2 Implementation 396 * IN THE HANGAR: The Multics Segmentation System 399 12.6 Summary 401 12.7 Exercises 402 Chapter13 File Management 405 13.1 Files 406 13.1.1 Low-level Files 408 13.1.2 Structured Files 412 13.1.3 Database Management Systems 418 13.1.4 Multimedia Storage 418 13.2 Low-level File Implementations 419 13.2.1 open and close Operations 420 * IN THE HANGAR: UNIX open and close 420 13.2.2 Block Management 422 * IN THE HANGAR: UNIX File Structure 425 13.2.3 Reading and Writing the Byte Stream 430 13.3 Supporting Other Storage Abstractions 431 13.3.1 Structured Sequential Files 431 13.3.2 Indexed Sequential Files 431 13.3.3 Database Management Systems 432 13.3.4 Multimedia Documents 432 13.4 Memory-Mapped Files 433 * IN THE HANGAR: Memory-mapped Files in Windows 2000 434 13.5 Directories 435 13.5.1 Directory Structures 436 * IN THE HANGAR: Some Directory Examples 437 13.6 Directory Implementation 439 13.6.1 Device Directories 439 13.6.2 File Directory 440 13.6.3 Opening a File in a Hierarchical Directory 440 13.6.4 Mounting Removable File Systems 441 13.7 Summary 442 13.8 Exercises 442 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: A Simple File Manager 445 ·Background 446 ·Attacking the Problem 449 Chapter14 Protection and Security 453 14.1 Fundamentals 454 14.1.1 Policy and Mechanism 454 14.1.2 Implementing Policy and Mechanism 456 14.1.3 Authentication Mechanism 456 14.1.4 Authorization Mechanisms 457 14.1.5 Encryption 458 14.2 Authentication 458 14.2.1 User Authentication 459 14.2.2 Authentication in Networks 459 * IN THE HANGAR: Kerberos Network Authentication 461 14.3 Internal Access Authorization 463 14.3.1 A Model for Resource Protection 464 14.3.2 Changing the Protection State 466 14.3.3 The Cost of Protection Mechanisms 468 14.4 Implementing Internal Authorization 469 14.4.1 Protection Domains 469 14.4.2 Implementing the Access Matrix 471 14.5 Cryptography 476 14.6 Summary 477 14.7 Exercises 478 Chapter15 Networks 481 15.1 From Computer Communications to Networks 482 15.1.1 Communication Subnetworks 483 15.1.2 Network Communication Protocols 484 15.2 The ISO OSI Network Architecture Model 485 15.2.1 The Evolution of Network Protocols 484 15.2.2 The ISO OSI Model 487 15.3 Low-level Protocols 490 15.3.1 The Physical Layer 491 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Fast Physical Layers 492 15.3.2 The Data Link Layer 493 15.3.3 Contemporary Networks 494 15.4 The Network Layer 496 15.4.1 Addressing 498 15.4.2 Routing 499 15.4.3 Using the Network Layer 501 15.5 The Transport Layer 502 15.5.1 Communication Ports 502 15.5.2 Data Types 503 15.5.3 Reliable Communication 504 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Datagrams and Virtual Circuits 505 15.6 Using the Transport Layer 506 15.6.1 Naming 506 * IN THE HANGAR: The Domain Name System 508 15.6.2 The Client-server Model 509 15.7 Summary 511 15.8 Exercises 512 * LABORATORY EXERCISE: Using TCP/IP 515 ·Background 515 ·Attacking the Problem 523 Chapter16 Remote Files 525 16.1 Sharing Information Across the Network 526 16.1.1 Explicit File Copying Systems 527 16.1.2 Implicit File Sharing 528 16.1.3 The Remote Storage Interface 530 16.1.4 Distributing the Work 531 16.2 Remote Disk Systems 533 16.2.1 The Remote Disk Operation 534 16.2.2 Performance Considerations 535 16.2.3 Reliability 536 16.2.4 The Future of Remote Disks 539 16.3 Remote File Systems 539 16.3.1 The General Architecture 540 16.3.2 Block Caching 542 16.3.3 Crash Recovery 544 16.4 File-level Caching 548 * IN THE HANGAR: The Andrew File System 548 * IN THE HANGAR: The LOCUS File System 549 16.5 Directory Systems and Their Implementations 551 16.5.1 Filenames 552 16.5.2 Opening a File 554 16.6 Summary 555 16.7 Exercises 556 Chapter17 Distributed Computing 559 17.1 Distributing Process Management 560 17.1.1 Partitioning the Work 560 17.1.2 Supporting Partitioned Computation 562 17.1.3 General Process Management 563 17.1.4 Scheduling 563 * PERFORMANCE TUNING: Process Migration and Load Balancing 564 17.1.5 Coordinating Processes 565 17.2 Message Passing 568 17.2.1 Message-Passing Interfaces 570 17.2.2 Computing Paradigms 572 17.3 Remote Procedure Call 573 17.3.1 How Does RPC Work? 573 17.3.2 Implementing RPC 575 17.4 Distributed-memory Management 579 17.4.1 Remote Memory 583 * IN THE HANGAR: Examples of Distributed Memory 583 17.4.2 Distributed Virtual Memory 586 17.4.3 Distributed Objects 588 17.5 Summary 589 17.6 Exercises 589 Chapter18 Strategies and Examples 591 18.1 OS Components and Relationships 592 18.2 General Organizational Issues 593 18.2.1 Software Organization 594 18.2.2 Managing Distributed Hardware 599 18.3 The Traditional UNIX Kernel 601 18.3.1 The Kernel 602 18.3.2 The Monolithic Organization 603 18.3.3 Conclusion 604 18.4 The Linux Kernel 604 18.4.1 Kernel Organization 604 18.4.2 Process and Resource Management 609 18.4.3 Memory Manager 615 18.4.4 File Management 616 18.5 Choices: An Object-oriented OS 618 18.5.1 Frameworks 618 18.5.2 Using a Framework for the Memory Manager 618 18.5.3 Conclusion 620 18.6 Microsoft Windows NT 621 18.6.1 General Architecture 621 18.6.2 The Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) 624 18.6.3 The NT Kernel 624 18.6.4 The NT Executive 626 18.6.5 NT Subsystems 631 18.7 The Mach Operating System 632 18.7.1 Process Management 633 18.7.2 Message Passing 635 18.7.3 Memory Management 638 18.7.4 Conclusion 640 18.8 The CHORUS Operating System 640 18.8.1 Process Management 642 18.8.2 Interprocess Communication 643 18.8.3 Memory Management 643 18.8.4 Conclusion 644 18.9 Summary 644 18.10 Exercises 644 Glossary 647 Bibliography 659 Index 663 |
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