| 1. History and Concept of the Audience Situating the Audience Concept Overview of the Chapter What is an "Audience"? Constructionism and the Notion of the Audience Three Models of the Audience History of Early Audiences Greek and Roman Audiences: Public Performance & Oral Communication Print and the Shift Towards Mediated Audiences Liberalism, Democratic Participation and Crowds in the 19th Century Motion Pictures and the Rise of the Mass Audience Audiences and Notions of Power Structure and Agency What is Power? Conclusion: Constructing Audiences Through History and Theory PART I. AUDIENCES AS OBJECTS 2. Effects of Media Messages Overview of the Chapter Origins of Media Effects Theories in the Early 20th Century Charles Horton Cooley and the Emergence of Sociology Concern Over Film Audiences: Hugo Nunsterberg and Mass Suggestibility Mass Society Theory and the Payne Fund Studies The Payne Fund Studies (1929-1932) Consequences of the Payne Fund Studies The War of the Worlds Broadcast and the Direct Effects Model The War of the Worlds Broadcast (1938) Cantril's Study of Mass Panic Among Radio Audiences Mass Propaganda Concerns and World War II Communication Research Early Concerns with Mass Persusasion World War II Communication Research Post-war Communication Research: The Rise of the Limited Effects Paradigm Persuasion Research: Selectivity and the ELM The People's Choice (1944) and Personal Influence (1955) Effects of Media Violence Rise of Public Concern Over Television and the Surgeon General's Report (1971) Long-Term Media Effects and Cultivation Theory Video Game Violence and Effects Conclusion: Enduring Concern Over Media Effects PART II. AUDIENCES AS INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS 3. Public Opinion and Audience Citizenship Overview of the Chapter A Brief History of Public Opinion Greco-Roman Notions of Public Opinion Feudal Europe and the Representative Public Sphere The 18th Century Enlightenment & The Bourgeois Public Sphere Quantification of Public Opinion in the 19th Century The Rise of Surveys in the 20th Century Survey Methods and the Public Opinion Industry Sampling and Survey Participation Data Gathering and Survey Design Public Opinion Organizations Public Opinion and the Limits of Audience Constructions Public Opinion as a Fictional Construct Surveys and the Manufacture of Public Opinion How News Shapes Public Opinion News and the Public Agenda Opinion Polling and the News Media Conclusion: The Construction of Public Opinion and its Implications for Democracy 4. Media Ratings and Target Marketing Overview of the Chapter The Political Economic Approach to Communication Political Economy and the Commodity Audience Dallas W. Smythe and the "Blindspot" Debate Ratings and the Construction of the Audience Project Toothpicks and Trees: The "Natural" Audience as Taxonomic Collectives Measuring Audiences: The Ratings System Audience Research and the Ratings Operationalization of the Audience Concept: Quantification Constructing the Nielsen Sample Measuring Audience Viewership: Diaries, Household Meters, Peoplemeters, and PPMs Online Audience Measures Ratings and Shares in the Television Industry Ratings, Market Research and the Audience Commodity: Assigning Market Value to Mass Audiences The Importance of Audience Demographics: Age, Gender, and Income The Role of Psychographic and Lifestyle Measurements in Targeted Marketing Appeals Marketing and Social Stereotypes: Minority Audiences Struggle with Big Media Conclusion: How Effective is Institutional Control over Audiences? PART III. AUDIENCES AS ACTIVE USERS OF MEDIA 5. Uses and Gratifications Overview of the Chapter Early Examples of Uses and Gratifications in Communication Research Motion Picture Autobiographies and Media Motivations in the 1920s Female Radio Serial Listeners in the 1940s The Uses and Gratifications Approach Israeli Media and their Uses (Katz, Gurevitch and Haas, 1973) Uses and Gratifications and the Notion of Needs Audience Activities and Media Motives Expectancy-Value Approaches to Uses & Gratifications Social Uses of Media The Uses & Dependency Approach Conclusion: Refocusing on Audience Power 6. Interpreting and Decoding Mass Media Texts Overview of the Chapter The Rise of Critical Cultural Studies Interpretation and Semiotics Ideology, Screen Theory and the Critical Paradigm The Birmingham School and the Encoding/Decoding Model The Encoding/Decoding Model Message Asymmetry and Multiple Levels of Meaning Polysemy and Three Subject Positions The Nationwide Audience Studies Gender and Media Interpretation: Soap Operas, Romances & Feminism Crossroads And the Soap Opera Viewer Decoding Dallas: The Work of Ien Ang Reading the Romance Novel Reader: Janice Radway Cross-Cultural Reception of Popular Media Open Texts: The Theories of John Fiske Intertextuality and Interpretive Communities Conclusion: Interpretation and Audience Power 7. Reception Contexts & Media Rituals Overview of the Chapter Media in Context: Notions of Space and Time Social and Situational Contexts Time and Media Use Media Reception in the Domestic Sphere Housewives and Mass Media Morley's Nationwide Follow-Up: Family Television Television and 'Gendered' Technologies in the Home Domestic Media Reception in the 90's and Beyond Social vs. individualized viewing behaviors The Internet and New Media in the Home Media and Everyday Life in the Domestic Context The Blending of Public and Private Spaces: Modernity and Time-Space Distanciation Media Technology and the Home Media Spaces in the 21st Century Media Rituals: Another Reception Context Defining Rituals Media Events: Creating Television's "High Holidays" Conclusion: Audiences in Context PART IV. AUDIENCES AS PRODUCERS AND SUBCULTURES 8. Media Fandom and Audience Subcultures Overview of the Chapter Defining Fan Cultures Fan Stereotypes Defining Fan Studies: Why Study Fans? Fan Cultures and Interpretive Activity The Social Aspect of Media Fandom: Developing Communities and Subcultures Fan Activism: Challenging Institutional Producers Fans and Media Texts: Protecting Continuity and Canon Canon Wars: Star Wars Fans Define the Popular Text Fans and Textual Productions de Certeau and Textual Poaching Fanzines, Fanfic and Filking: Textual Poaching in Action Fans and Cultural Hierarchy: The Limits of Textual Re-Interpretation Pierre Bourdieu and the Sociology of Cultural Consumption Second Wave Fan Studies: The Reproduction of Economic and Social Hierarchies Conclusion: Fans, Creativity, and Cultural Hierarchy 9. Online, Interactive Audiences in a Digital Media World Overview of the Chapter Digitalization, Fragmentation, and the Rise of Audience Autonomy YouTube and WoW: Sites of Audience Agency and Creativity The Rise of Participatory Culture YouTube As A Site for Participatory Culture World of Warcraft as Creative Playground and Social Center Crowdsourcing Media Production: Wikis and Blogs Wikis and the Crowdsourcing of Audience Knowledge Blogs and Citizen Journalism Questioning Audience Power in the Networked Information Society: Issues of Media Ownership, Survellance, and Labor Exploitation Audience-Produced Media: The Question of Intellectual Property Social Media and Audience Surveillance in a Networked Environment Audience Creativity and Labor Exploitation Conclusion: Networked Creativity Meets Undercompensated Labor 10. Conclusion: Audience Agency in New Contexts Overview of the Chapter The Rise of Mobile, Transmedia Experiences in the Post-Network Era The New Economics of Audience Aggregation Audience Studies in a New Century |
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