| 1. Introduction SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY——AN OVERVIEW 1 Sequence Stratigraphy in the Context of Interdisciplinary Research I Sequence Stratigraphy——A Revolution in Sedimentary Geology 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 3 Early Developments 3 Sequence Stratigraphy Era——Eustatic vs. Tectonic Controls on Sedimentation 4 Sequence Models 6 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC APPROACH 7 Terminology 7 Concept of Scale 9 Sequence Stratigraphy vs. Lithostratigraphy and Allostratigraphy 10 2. Methods of Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis INTRODUCTION 17 FACIES ANALYSIS: OUTCROPS, CORE, AND MODERN ANALOGUES 17 Concepts of Depositional System, Facies, and Facies Models 17 Classification of Depositional Environments 18 Walthers Law 21 Sedimentary Petrography 21 Paleocurrent Directions 25 Pedology 25 Ichnology 31 General Principles 31 Ichnofacies Classification 32 Softground.related Ichnofacies 33 Substrate-controlled Ichnofacies 36 Discussion 40 WELL LOGS 4O Introduction 40 Well Logs: Geological Uncertainties 42 Constraining Well-log Interpretations 44 SEISMIC DATA 48 Introduction 48 Physical Attributes of Seismic Data 50 Workflow of Seismic Data Analysis 51 Reconnaissance Studies 51 Interval Attribute Maps 52 Horizon Attribute Maps 56 3D Perspective Visualization 56 AGE DETERMINATION TECHNIQUES 58 WORKFLOW OF SEQUENCE STRAT1GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 63 Step 1 Tectonic Setting (Type of Sedimentary Basin) 63 Step 2——Paleodepositional Environments 66 Step 3——Sequence Stratigraphic Framework 68 Stratal Terminations 69 Stratigraphic Surfaces 69 Systems Tracts and Sequences 70 3. Accommodation and Shoreline Shifts INTRODUCTION 73 ALLOGENIC CQNTROLS ON SEDIMENTATION 73 Significance of Allogenic Controls 73 Signatures of Allogenic Controls 75 Relative Importance of Allogenic Controls 76 SEDIMENT SUPPLY AND ENERGY FLUX 77 Sediment Supply 77 Sediment Supply vs. Environmental Energy Flux 78 SEDIMENT ACCOMMODATION 81 Definitions——Accommodatipn, Base Level, and Fluvial Graded Profiles 81 Proxies for Base Level and Accommodation 84 Changes in Accommodation 86 SHORELINE TRAJECTORIES 89 Definitions 89 Transgressions 92 Forced Regressions 97 Normal Regressions 101 4. Stratigraphic Surfaces INTRODUCTION 105 TYPES OF STRATAL TERMINATIONS 106 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC SURFACES 109 Subaerial Unconformity 112 Correlative Conformity 119 Basal Surface of Forced Regression 123 Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion 127 Maximum Regressive Surface 135 Maximum Flooding Surface 142 Transgressive Ravinement Surfaces 1"47 Wave.Ravinement Surface 149 Tlal-Ravinement Surface 151 WITHIN-TREND FACIES CONTACTS 153 Within-trend Normal Regressive Surface 153 Within-trend Forced Regressive Surface 157 Within-trend Flooding Surface 159 5. Systems Tracts INTRODUCTION 165 HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT 171 Definition and Stacking Patterns 171 Economic Potential 176 Petroleum Plays 176 Coal Resources 177 Placer Deposits 178 FALLING-STAGE SYSTEMS TRACT 178 Definition and Stacking Patterns 178 Economic Potential 189 Petroleum Plays 189 Coal Resources 193 Placer Deposits 194 LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT 197 Definition and Stacking Patterns 197 Economic Potential 203 Petroleum Plays 203 Coal Resources 204 Placer Deposits 204 TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT 205 Definition and Stacking Patterns 205 Economic Potential 215 Petroleum Plays 215 Coal Resources 218 Placer Deposits 219 REGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT 219 Definition and Stacking Patterns 219 Economic Potential 222 LOW- AND HIGH-ACCOMMODATION SYSTEMS TRACTS 222 Definition and Stacking Patterns 222 Low-Accommodation Systems Tract 223 H-Accommodation Systems Tract 227 Discussion 229 Economic Potential 232 Petroleum Plays 233 Coal Resources 233 Placer Deposits 233 6. Sequence Models INTRODUCTION 235 TYPES OF STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCES 237 Depositional Sequence 237 Genetic Stratigraphic Sequence 240 Transgressive-Regressive (T-R) Sequence 241 Parasequences 243 SEQUENCES IN FLUVIAL SYSTEMS 246 Introduction 246 Fluvial Cyclicity Controlled by Base-level Changes 248 Fluvial Cyclicity Independent of Base-level Changes 250 Climatic Cycles 251 Tectonic Cycles 252 Low- vs. High-Accommodation Settings 253 SEQUENCES IN COASTAL TO SHALLOW-WATER eLASTIC SYSTEMS 253 Introduction 253 Physical Processes 254 Sediment Supply and Transport Mechanisms 254 Zonation of the Coastal —— Shallow-marine Profile 256 Sediment Budget: Fairweather vs. Storm Conditions 260 Cyclicity of Coastal to Shallow-water Systems in Relation to Shoreline Shifts 260 Normal Regressive Settings 260 Forced Regressive Settings 260 Transgressive Settings 261 Summary 261 SEQUENCES IN DEEP-WATER eLASTIC SYSTEMS 262 Introduction 262 Physical Processes 263 Progradation of Shelf-edge Deltas 263 Gravity Flows 265 Depositional Elements 266 Submarine-canyon Fills 267 Turbidity-flow Channel Fills 267 Turbidity.flow Levees and Overbank Sediment Waves 270 Turbidity-flow Splay Complexes 271 Mudflow (Cohesive Debris Flow) Macroforms 273 Cyclicity of Deep-water Systems in Relation to Shoreline Shifts 276 Highstand Normal Regressions 276 Early Forced Regressions 276 Late Forced Regressions 276 Lowstand Normal Regressions 277 Early Transgressions 277 Late Transgressions 278 Summary 278 SEQUENCES IN CARBONATE SYSTEMS 279 Introduction 279 The Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphic Model 282 Drowning Unconformities 283 Highstand Systems Tracts 283 Falling-stage——Lowstand Systems Tracts 285 Transgressive Systems Tracts 285 Discussion: Sequence Boundaries in Carbonate Successions 287 7. Time Attributes of Stratigraphic Surfaces INTRODUCTION 291 REFERENCE CURVE FOR THE DEFINITION OF STRATIGRAPHIC SURFACES 292 SHORELINE SHIFTS, GRADING, AND BATHYMETRY 294 Controls on Sediment Grading and Water-depth Changes 294 Discussion 303 METHODS OF DEFINITION OF STRATIGRAPHIC SURFACES 308 Introduction 308 Correlative Conformities 308 Onset-of-fall Correlative Conformity 308 End-of-fall Correlative Conformity 309 Maximum Regressive and Maximum Flooding Surfaces 310 Definition 310 Two-dimensional Model 311 ModeI Results 312 Strike Variability 314 Discussion 314 SUMMARY: TIME ATTRIBUTES OF STRATIGRAPHIC SURFACES 319 Subaerial Unconformity 319 Correlative Conformity 322 Basal Surface of Forced Regression 322 Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion 322 Maximum Regressive Surface 323 Maximum Flooding Surface 323 Transgressive Ravinement Surfaces 324 Within-trend Facies Contacts 324 Conclusions 325 8. Hierarchy of Sequences and Sequence Boundaries INTRODUCTION 327 HIERARCHY SYSTEM BASED ON CYCLE DURATION (BOUNDARY FREQUENCY)329 HIERARCHY SYSTEM BASED ON THE MAGNITUDE OF BASE-LEVEL CHANGES 330 DISCUSSION 332 9. Discussion and Conclusions FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES 335 Scope and Applications 335 The Importance of Shoreline Shifts 336 Theory vs. Reality in Sequence Stratigraphy 337 The Importance of the Tectonic Setting 338 Uses and Abuses in Sequence Stratigraphy 339 PRECAMBRIAN VS. PHANEROZOIC SEQUENCI STRATIGRAPHY 339 MOVING FORWARD TOWARD STANDARDIZIN SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 340 CONCLUDING REMARKS 342 REFERENCES 345 AUTHOR INDEX 361 SUBJECT INDEX 369 |
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